EchocardiographyHeart ultrasound for doctors: standards, protocols, calculations, and interpretation according to international standards.
The threshold value of left atrial reservoir strain (LASr) for detecting elevated LV filling pressure is considered to be LASr < 18%. According to the ASE/EACVI …
Read →Diastolic stress echocardiography is indicated in patients with dyspnea and Grade I diastolic dysfunction or indeterminate LV filling pressure at rest. Signs of exercise-induced elevated filling …
Read →According to BSE/BCOS (2021), the key threshold for subclinical cardiotoxicity is a relative decline in LV GLS >15% from baseline while LV ejection fraction remains preserved. …
Read →The expanded grading of TR complements classical degrees (mild/moderate/severe) with massive and torrential categories to identify extremely severe forms. However, in the provided source fragments, specific …
Read →Functional (secondary) mitral regurgitation occurs with structurally intact leaflets due to chamber remodeling. The atrial variant is associated with left atrial dilation and mitral annulus enlargement …
Read →The bubble study (agitated saline contrast) in transthoracic echocardiography is used to detect right-to-left shunting, including through a patent foramen ovale. A key element of the …
Read →The provided excerpts do not contain direct echocardiographic criteria for dilated cardiomyopathy and its differential from the ESC 2023 guidelines. Only general parameters for assessing chamber …
Read →Echocardiographic diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia (ARVC) relies on the modified Task Force criteria (Marcus FI et al., Circulation 2010) and the updated Padua criteria …
Read →The diagnosis of left ventricular noncompaction (LVNC) relies on echocardiographic criteria such as Jenni's (N/C ratio > 2 at end-systole from PSAX), Chin's (X/Y index < …
Read →Reverberations, side lobes, and refraction artifacts can mimic real structures (thrombi in the LAA, floating membranes in aortic dissection). Recognition relies on the nature of movement, …
Read →Stress echocardiography with physical exercise in valvular heart disease is used to detect symptoms and functional changes that do not manifest at rest. According to EACVI/ASE …
Read →On Echo, a true aortic dissection flap is a wave-like linear mobile echogenic structure that respects physical boundaries and acts as a flow divider in the …
Read →Echocardiography in Takotsubo syndrome reveals regional wall motion abnormalities (hypokinesis, akinesis, dyskinesis with apical ballooning). However, the method alone does not reliably distinguish reversible dysfunction from …
Read →Post-infarction mechanical complications (free wall rupture, pseudoaneurysm, acute VSD) are life-threatening conditions requiring urgent echocardiographic diagnosis. Key echocardiographic markers include local wall motion abnormalities (akinesis, dyskinesis …
Read →Assessment of pulmonary regurgitation (PR) on EchoCG is performed in the LAX RVOT position with CFD flow in the RVOT, PV, PA, and bifurcation of the …
Read →Assessment of tricuspid stenosis (TS) requires an integrative approach using all Doppler and 2D data. Key quantitative parameters are peak velocity and mean trans-tricuspid flow gradient; …
Read →Atrial septal defect (ASD) is a communication between the atria, creating a shunt and volume overload with chamber dilation. Echocardiography verifies flow using color Doppler mapping, …
Read →Contrast echocardiography with intravenous ultrasound contrast agents is used to enhance visualization of the LV apex in suboptimal acoustic windows, aiding in the detection of apical …
Read →Contrast echocardiography with ultrasound contrast agents (UCA) enhances the assessment of cardiac structure and function at rest and during stress echocardiography; its safety is well documented …
Read →Stroke volume is calculated as the product of the cross-sectional area of the LVOT (πd²/4) and the LVOT VTI: SV = CSA × VTI. Cardiac output …
Read →Assessment of right atrial pressure (RAP) is based on measuring the diameter of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and its inspiratory collapse. Normally, the diastolic diameter …
Read →Bedside assessment of volume status and fluid responsiveness with POCUS is based on a comprehensive analysis: morphology and respiratory variability of the inferior vena cava (IVC), …
Read →The bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) is a congenital anomaly where assessing the number of cusps in adults is often complicated by superimposed calcification. An international consensus …
Read →In HCM, if a patient does not reach the gradient thresholds for considering septal reduction therapy (SRT), it is essential to perform provocative maneuvers to identify …
Read →Echocardiographic signs of cardiac tamponade include early diastolic collapse of the RV free wall (best seen in M-mode), signs of increased ventricular interdependence — respiratory discordance …
Read →In constrictive pericarditis, enhanced interventricular dependence forms a triad of echocardiographic signs: septal bounce (rapidly changing early diastolic gradients between RV and LV), annulus reversus (lateral …
Read →Aortic dimensions are measured from PLAX in 2D perpendicular to the long axis of the aorta. The aortic annulus is measured in mid-systole (I-I method); the …
Read →A key tool for differentiating intracardiac masses is contrast echocardiography with perfusion assessment: myxomas exhibit heterogeneous (patchy) contrast accumulation, while an avascular mass without contrast uptake …
Read →McConnell's sign and the 60/60 rule are echocardiographic indicators of acute right ventricular overload, aiding in the suspicion of pulmonary embolism (PE) at the bedside. Both …
Read →The assessment of the severity of mitral stenosis (MS) relies on the calculation of the mitral valve area (MVA). When leaflet excursion is restricted, MVA is …
Read →The evaluation of aortic prosthesis function is based on the same Doppler principles as the assessment of native stenosis. Key indicators of obstruction include peak velocity …
Read →Differentiation between thrombus and pannus on an obstructive mechanical prosthesis is based on a comprehensive assessment of clinical, transthoracic, and transesophageal echocardiographic parameters (Barbetseas et al., …
Read →The provided source fragments do not contain specific echocardiographic criteria for infective endocarditis according to Duke-ISCVID 2023 (definitions of vegetations, abscess, pseudoaneurysm, or their dimensional thresholds). …
Read →The assessment of paravalvular regurgitation in TAVI relies on ASE recommendations for evaluating valve regurgitation after percutaneous valve replacement (Zoghbi WA et al., J Am Soc …
Read →Key echocardiographic signs of cardiac amyloidosis include increased wall thickness of both ventricles, reduced GLS with relative preservation of apical longitudinal strain (apical sparing) on the …
Read →Virtual echocardiography training supports theoretical preparation; however, developing technical skills requires practical clinical experience: pediatric, fetal, and congenital echocardiography cannot be fully mastered in a virtual …
Read →Severe aortic regurgitation (AR) is determined by integrating parameters: dense CWD jet spectrum, pressure half-time (PHT) <200 ms, vena contracta width >0.6 cm, jet width to …
Read →According to the ASE 2025 guidelines for the standardization of echocardiography reports, the severity of tricuspid regurgitation (TR) should be described in 5 categories: mild, moderate, …
Read →According to the BSE 2025 guideline for myosin inhibitor therapy, the key figures for each surveillance EchoCG are LVEF and the peak gradient in the LVOT …
Read →According to the BSE 2025 practical guide, severe aortic regurgitation is likely when the vena contracta is >0.6 cm, EROA is ≥0.30 cm², regurgitant volume is …
Read →In the ESC/EACTS 2025 guidelines, severe aortic stenosis is confirmed with Vmax ≥4.0 m/s, mean gradient ≥40 mmHg, or AVA ≤1.0 cm²; low flow is defined …
Read →According to ASE 2024, for an aortic prosthesis, normal hemodynamics usually correspond to Vmax <3 m/s, mean gradient <20 mm Hg, DVI >0.35, and AT <80 …
Read →Mastering TTE from scratch is a sequential process: from understanding indications and preparation for the study to step-by-step execution of 2D, M-mode, and Doppler studies. An …
Read →ASE 2025 retains key thresholds for Echo assessment of diastolic function: septal e′ <7 cm/s, lateral e′ <10 cm/s, average E/e′ >14, TR Vmax >2.8 m/s, …
Read →The ASE/EACVI 2025 consensus transitions speckle tracking strain from a research method to a routine quantitative component of echocardiography. For the LV, a practical guideline: GLS …
Read →According to ASE 2025, the diastolic function of the RV is assessed not by a single indicator but by a combination of transtricuspid E/A, DT, E/e′, …
Read →The EACVI/ESC 2025 consensus emphasizes: in cases of multiple valvular lesions, severity cannot be mechanically transferred from algorithms for isolated lesions. The main mistake is interpreting …
Read →A reduction in GLS of >15% in relative terms from baseline (BSE/BCOS, 2021) is considered significant — this is a criterion for possible subclinical cardiotoxicity. Clinical …
Read →According to ASE 2025, the right ventricle is not assessed by a single number: integration of size, systolic function, pulmonary artery pressure, and right atrial pressure …
Read →TEE is a key imaging modality for structural heart disease, used for preprocedural assessment before transcatheter and surgical interventions, as well as for guiding transseptal catheterization …
Read →The assessment of regional LV contractility is based on the analysis of wall motion and systolic thickening by segments using a semi-quantitative scale (normokinesis, hypokinesis, akinesis, …
Read →The left ventricular myocardial mass is calculated using the linear method (Devereux formula, Penn convention) from IVSd, LVPWd, and LVIDd. LVMI = mass/BSA; the upper limit …
Read →Dobutamine Stress Echocardiography (DSE) is used to assess coronary artery disease (CAD) and to clarify the severity of aortic stenosis (AS) in the presence of left …
Read →GLS is measured using the 2D speckle tracking method through apical views (A4C, A2C, A3C) and reflects the longitudinal systolic function of the LV. A decrease …
Read →SPAP (Systolic Pulmonary Artery Pressure) in the absence of RVOT obstruction is calculated using the modified Bernoulli equation: RVSP = 4·TRVmax² + RAP, where RVSP=SPAP. The …
Read →Quantitative assessment of mitral regurgitation (MR) relies on the PISA method with EROA calculation and vena contracta measurement. According to BSE (2021), flow convergence hemispheres are …
Read →Severe aortic stenosis on EchoCG is suspected with transaortic Vmax ≥4 m/s, mean gradient ≥40 mmHg, AVA <1 cm², indexed AVA <0.6 cm²/m², and LVOT/AV velocity …
Read →According to the ASE/EACVI (2016) guidelines, the degree of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction is determined by four key parameters: average E/e' >14, e' velocity (septal <7 …
Read →LVEF is preferably calculated using the biplane method of disks summation (modified Simpson's method) from EDV and ESV volumes obtained in apical 4- and 2-chamber views. …
Read →Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction (LVEF) is the proportion of blood ejected by the left ventricle per cardiac cycle. The recommended method is the biplane method of …
Read →Reference values for echocardiography in adults are regulated by the ASE/EACVI guidelines for the quantitative assessment of cardiac chambers (Lang RM et al., J Am Soc …
Read →Transthoracic Echocardiography (TTE) is performed as an ECG-synchronized study: first, patient and equipment preparation, followed by sequential scanning in 2D, M-modes, and Doppler modalities. Key linear …
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